Exam One with Correct Answers

“Since Discovery Institute [sic] first published its Statement of Dissent from Darwin in 2001, more than 600 scientists have courageously stepped forward and signed onto a growing list of scientists of all disciplines voicing their skepticism over the central tenets of Darwin's theory of evolution. … Prominent scientists who have signed the list include evolutionary biologist and textbook author Dr. Stanley Salthe, quantum chemist Henry Schaefer at the University of Georgia, and Giuseppe Sermonti the Editor of Rivista di Biologia / Biology Forum." - from the Discovery Institute website

Argument from Authority; the author attempts to convince the reader of his claims by investing superior authority in particular individuals, rather than in the merits (or lack thereof, in this case) of their evidence. This could also be considered a form of Argument from Consensus, where it is claimed that because some arbitrary number of individuals believe something, so should you regardless of contradicting evidence. The author is also guilty of Inconsistency, or "counting hits and not counting misses"; individuals who support the author's point of view are counted, but not individuals who are members of the scientific community but who have NOT signed on with the author.

This quote also suffers from Selective Use of Statistics; 600 scientists seems large, but by comparison, the American Institute of Biological Sciences - a leading organization of biologists and scientists in related fields - includes approximately 250,000 individuals as AIBS members and members of allied professional organizations.

On a related note, the National Center for Science Education - an advocacy group that focuses on responsible science teaching - ridicules the DI list by publishing its own list of scientists named "Steve" (in honor of the accomplished paleontologist Steven J. Gould) who support evolutionary science. The "Steve" list has so far been signed by over 750 scientists named Steve, Steven, Stephen or Stephanie.

[2] Which logical fallacy is exhibited by the following quote?

“Global warmers predict that global warming is coming, and our emissions are to blame. They do that to keep us worried about our role in the whole thing. If we aren't worried and guilty, we might not pay their salaries. It's that simple.” - Kary Mullis

Ad Hominem, or Straw Man; the author caricatures his opposition, presenting them as untrustworthy or unscrupulous exaggerations, instead of addressing directly their claims and evidence.

[3] Which logical fallacy is exhibited by the following quote?

“You are either with us or you are with the terrorists.” - US President G. W. Bush

Exclusion of the Middle, also known as False Dichotomy; the speaker attempts to shortcut complexities in his argument by claiming only two polar opposite positions exist, with no room for compromise or moderation. Another implicit fallacy in this statement could be Argument from Authority.

[4] Which logical fallacy is exhibited by the following quote?

“So many essential conditions are necessary for life to exist on our earth that it is mathematically impossible that all of them could exist in proper relationship by chance on any one earth at one time.” - A. Cressy Morrison

The author is guilty of several logical fallacies, chief among them are; Ad Ignorantum, or Argument from Ignorance - because the origin of life is really complicated, we might as well give up understanding it and embrace a supernatural explanation. This can also be called Confusing Unknown with Unknowable, where a claim is made that because something is not fully understood by some arbitrary date (i.e. the present), it is forever unknowable.

The author also employs a particular kind of Misuse of Statistics sometimes called the Lottery Fallacy - the odds of any and every particular outcome of a complex set of causative variables is very small (i.e. the odds of you in particular winning the lottery), but some outcome must occur nonetheless, and someone must eventually win the lottery.

One could also argue that the author is guilty of Begging the Question, or assuming the answer. The author argues that no natural (i.e. testable) process could produced life naturally. The unstated assumption of his argument is that an untestable premise (interference by a supernatural power) is actually responsible for the origin of life.

[5] What is the approximate age of the universe?

13.7 billion years

[6] What is the approximate age of the Earth and the Solar System?

4.6 billion years

[7] The first published estimates of the age of the Earth, based on the then-new science of radiometric dating, were based on the radioactive decay of what element?

Uranium (U)

[8] In the early universe, only two elements comprised 99.99% of normal matter. What were these elements? (worth up to two points)

Hydrogen (H) and Helium (He)

[9] What process is responsible for the formation of all heavy elements, up to the mass of iron?

Fusion in stars

[10] In early chemical differentiation of the Earth, during and just after planetary accretion, heavy metallic elements such as gold, platinum and iridium mostly ended up in what part of the Earth?

the Core

[11] What major chemical substance is present in the modern Earth’s atmosphere, but was entirely absent in our planet’s primordial atmosphere?

Oxygen gas (O2)

[12] A general rule of thumb among geologists is that any type of preserved biological remains that are older than what age are considered fossils?

10,000 years

[13] In some of his writings, Charles Darwin used three major premises, which taken together (aside from all the other information we have today) illustrate and lead to the logical inevitability of natural selection as an important biological process. What were these three premises?

1. There are more offspring of living things born than can possibly survive to adulthood and reproduce.
2. Individuals tend to vary in their traits, attributes, and abilities.
3. Traits, attributes and abilities are mostly inherited.

[14] What is the shorthand (abbreviated) name for the molecule that encodes, inside the cell, permanent storage of instructions to assemble an organism?

DNA

[15] Random alterations or defects in the genetic sequence of base pairs in an organism's genome, caused by radiation, chemicals, or errors, are called what?

Mutations

[16] Although eyes evolved many times independently in different animal groups, most employ variations on one mainn structural theme; the pinhole camera eye. This is because physics requires that only certain arrangements of forms can provide the same function. In evolutionary biology what is this type of 'coincidence' of similar forms in unrelated organisms called?

Convergent evolution

[17] What is the name for the earliest eon in the Geologic Timescale, during which planetary accretion and the period of intense bombardment occurred on Earth?

Hadean

[18] Provide the name for the structures, found inside every cell, that are responsible for assembling proteins.

Ribosomes

[19] What specific molecule forms the structures from questions [18]? This molecule is also considered to be the most likely original molecule comprising the earliest, simplest forms of self-replicating biological complexes (life) on Earth.

RNA

[20] What particular environment on Earth is the most likely place where life got its start? "Oceans" is not a sufficient answer.

Hydrothermal vents, also called 'black smoker' hot springs, on the ocean floor

[21] Extra Credit: Approximately (as in, a round number approximation) how many extra-solar planets - that is, planets in other star systems - are now known to astronomers on Earth?

Approximately 200

[22] Extra Credit: What is the highest temperature (Celsius) at which thermophilic bacteria have been successfully cultivated in the laboratory?

114º C